Girth

In English riding, the leather, cotton, or synthetic strap that buckles around a horse's belly and holds the saddle in place on his back.

In Western riding, a cinch holds the saddle in place, is buckled at each end, and often is made of fleece or webbing.

Gloves

Gloves serve a multitude of purposes for horse enthusiasts, ranging from sturdy work gloves that can literally save your skin during barn work to the elegant white gloves worn by Olympics dressage competitors.

Although the rules of each competitive discipline set standards for the use of gloves, it is considered good horsemanship to wear gloves while showing your horse. Some horsemen even believe gloves are an essential part of a safe dress code for handling horses.

In the hunter show ring, gloves are worn with show attire. These are black (to match formal black boots) and are made of either fine leather or a knit with rubber pimples on the palm side for grip. Brown boots are rarely worn, but if they are the color of the gloves should match.

In the dressage ring, gloves are white, either fine leather or knit, with pimple palms. For field hunting, it is permissible to wear any neat leather glove, or leather string-backed gloves. (Leather string-backs are also popular for training and schooling in warmer weather, as they allow air to circulate.) Wool knitted gloves in bright colors are also available with pimple palms; these are popular in cold climates, especially with young riders, for lessons, trail rides, and hacks.

Cotton roping gloves are worn to protect the roping hand in some Western events. Leather gloves matching other leather items are also appropriate for Western pleasure show attire.

Gooseneck Trailer

A trailer that attaches to the hauling vehicle, generally a sizeable pickup truck, via an adjustable metal stanchion permanently affixed to the bed and underlying framework of the truck.

Some regard these trailers as more stable than ball hitches, even when part of a heavy duty tow package. The downside is that the permanent fixture makes it difficult to use the truck for other purposes.

Grains

The four major grains fed to horses are oats, barley, corn, and milo (sorghum). Each has its advantages, but all are considered high-density energy sources that are added to a horse's natural diet of grass.

Barley
Barley is comparable to oats as a horse feed, except that it has a lower fiber content. It is considered a heavy feed, with a great deal of energy density. The kernel is also harder than an oat kernel; barley feed needs to be rolled or crushed. However, because it is so heavy, especially after processing, barley should always be mixed with other, bulkier feeds, such as wheat bran, to avoid the possibility of colic.

Bran Mash
Most wheat grown in the United States is used for human consumption, with just the husks left over. However, those husks are useful as a high-fiber horse feed in the form of bran. Twice as bulky as oats, bran is poorly digested, offering very little energy. But bran is good as intestinal filler, and it helps increase the amount of manure passed.

Bran is also used as a tonic for a sick or tired horse, to provide more moisture in the bowels, or for a laxative after foaling. If bran is fed dry, it should be no more than ten percent of the total ration.

Corn
Corn is a high-energy, low-bulk feed that can make a horse too fat unless fed sparingly. It must also be checked thoroughly for mold; moldy corn can kill a horse. If corn is fed, it should be mixed with other feeds - preferably high-protein and high bulk. It takes 15 percent less corn than oats to keep a horse conditioned, provided the ration is balanced with additional protein.

Crimped, Steamed, or Rolled Grains

Crimping, rolling, or steaming cracks the outer covering of the grain, making it easier to chew and digest. The food/energy value often rises when grains are processed in these ways. The proof can be seen in manure: When whole-kernel grains are fed, many kernels pass through in their entirety, without having released full nutritional value.

Nutrition

For horses, nutrition is derived from three categories of feed: roughages, concentrates, and supplements.

Roughages offer relatively little energy, but are high in fiber and necessary for proper functioning of the intestines. This category includes the pasture, hay, forage crops, and silage.

Concentrates are high in energy and low in fiber; they include grains and grain by-products.

Supplements are used to balance rations and make up for deficiencies in protein, minerals, or vitamins.

Oats
Oats are the most popular feed for horses. This grain is palatable to horses and appreciated by handlers for its fiber content, which is higher than either barley or corn.

Toxicity
Grains can become toxic if infected with fungi or molds. Ergot, a fungus, sometimes infects wheat, rye, and barley seed heads. An affected horse may slow circulation problems if small amounts of the toxin are ingested daily. Blood vessels to the feet, ears, and tail may constrict, and the horse may even lose his ear tips or ears. He may also develop gangrene in his feet and legs, leading to death.

Moldy corn pointing can occur if the horse eats feed or even pellets containing Fusarium moniliforme, a soil-borne fungus. The affected horse may become depressed, lose weight and his appetite, and be subject to bleeding disorders. A large dose is usually fatal; it may make the horse run into fences, press his head against a fence or wall, cross his legs or walk sideways, circle aimlessly, or lose other motor control as his brain deteriorates. He may die within a few hours or linger for several days.

Wheat and Wheat Bran
Wheat is usually not fed because of its high cost; if it is, it should be rolled or crushed to make chewing and digestion easier. Wheat should be fed as less than 20 percent of the grain ration, and it should be mixed with bulky grains, such as oats, or with bran to avoid colic. Wheat is as high-energy, high-protein feed, but it is low in fiber. Wheat bran, on the other hand, is high in fiber and should only be added to the ration as 10 to 15 percent of a dry ration. Wheat bran can also be fed as a bran mash to improve intestinal functioning, or it can be added as a treat to a warm mash.

Winter Nighttime Feeding
In the winter, a horse's minimum nighttime feeding should be larger than the daytime feeding (or feedings) to help him maintain energy and body heat through the cold night. He should be fed as much hay as he will eat in the overnight period; feeding less may induce him to nibble posts, bedding, or anything else within reach because he is cold, bored, and craves more roughage. If he is bedded on straw, he may even eat that, leading to possible impaction or of the digestive upset.

Ground Poles

Poles placed just in front of the vertical elements of a jump in order to help the horse judge the takeoff point. The term can also refer to a pole placed on the ground to teach a horse to go over an obstacle or to teach a rider how to ride over jumps without height.

They can be used, also, for flexibility exercises for the horse. In this case, three or more poles are placed a stride apart, and the horse is asked to trot over them. If a ground pole is placed a canter stride away from the jump, it is called a timing pole, and it is used to help novice jumpers learn when to prepare the horse and themselves for the jump.

Half-Hitch

Technically not a knot but a hitch, used primarily to make other knots. Although easy and popular, it is not the safest knot to use with horses.

When the strain is constant, this hitch is fairly reliable, but it can be difficult to loosen if a horse has thrown its full weight onto the line.

Half-Seat

In Western riding, this means rising up out of the saddle with the weight in the stirrups.

In English riding, the term may mean lightening the seat by pushing more weight down into the heel and slightly inclining the body forward (but not so far that the rider is in a two-point, or jumping, position), or a position used for the hand-gallop, a speed faster than canter.

It allows the horse's back to move more freely under the rider. Note that all the weight should not be shifted to the irons, but distributed along the inside thigh and the calf.

Some instructors use the term half-seat interchangeably with two-point or jumping position. However, a true two-point requires the rider's upper body to come forward, more or less mimicking the angle of the horse's neck.

Halter

The basic headgear a horse wears to enable humans to handle and control him. Haltering is the method of putting on a halter.

A halter alone is insufficient for handling a horse; it must always have a lead rope attached. Trying to lead or handle a horse by the halter alone, even for a short distance, may result in all sorts of difficulties, including injury to the handler.

Attaching a lead rope at least 6 (but preferably 8) feet long will give the handler leverage and the opportunity to get out of the horse's way without setting him loose. Be sure the snaps on lead ropes are in good order, though; most lead ropes are thick enough and made of such durable materials that their only weak spot is at the snap.

If you leave halters on pastured horses in the field to make it easier to bring them in, make sure those halters are either leather or breakaway nylon with a leather crownpiece; these halters will break and let the horse free if he catches it on something. Never leave a halter on a foal when it is unsupervised.

Handling Horses

No matter what a human does with a horse, he or she must handle that horse in some way, compelling him to move or behave in the manner we desire without causing injury or undue stress to either party.

Over the eons, humans have figured out what is needed for a horse to submit willingly (usually) to their requests. Below are tactics to use in performing the essential task of handling humankind's equine partners.

Body Contact
When being handled, the horse must always know where the handler is if he is not to become frightened and spook. The handler must also define for the horse the limits of his movements that will be accepted. Be consistent in setting and maintaining these limits.

Bribery
Using bribery, such as treats, to handle a horse may have unfortunate consequences: If you feed by hand, you may inadvertently create a horse that bites or aggressively seeks treats. In short, your horse will be spoiled and may become dangerous.

Chain Restraint
Some horses will ignore a tug on the noseband of a halter but will respond to a chain over the nose or under the chin. The chain gives much greater control by allowing the handler to exert pressure on various parts of the horse's head. If you choose to use a chain restraint, be compassionate and learn proper use and adjustment techniques from a professional.

Consistency
Horsepeople will tell you a horse's mind is like a two-year-old human's. This means that consistency in how you treat a horse - in what you reprimand him for and when you reward him - is paramount. A horse can learn bad habits just as easily as good ones. Be aware that every interaction you have with your horse is an opportunity for instruction.

Distance, Maintaining
Your personal space, when handling a horse, should be determined by the amount of space that makes you and your horse comfortable, on average about 18 to 24 inches around your body will suffice. If the horse runs into that space, quickly and firmly correct him with methods effective for you and your horse.

Dominance
In herds, horses fight for dominance. In a domestic setting, the rider/handler must be the dominant "horse," preferably by practicing benevolent dominance rather than dominating by brute force. This means being consistent and firm in your expectations of the horse, firm in your corrections when he missteps, and consistent in how you correct him.

Endorphins
Brain chemicals that make a horse calmer and easier to handle. One way to prompt the release of endorphins in a horse's system is through massage. Twitching is a form of restraint that releases endorphins.

Farriers
Prepare your horse to accept interactions with the farrier before they are needed. Accustom your horse to having his feet handled and held in the positions required for trimming and shoeing. Handle your horse's feet often; clean stones and debris out of them at least once a day. The farrier can't do good quality work if your horse struggles against him.

When the farrier arrives, work with him to find methods that keep your horse calm. Focus your attention on your horse and the work the farrier is doing. (Keep in mind, however, that some farriers may cause discomfort to the horse by overextending his legs or raising them too high. If you observe this, mention the possible problem to the farrier.)

Force and Handling
Using force when handling horses will have an unpredictable effect. It is impossible to force a horse to do anything unless he chooses to comply.

Hard-to-Catch Horses
There are a few types of hard-to-catch horses, each of which is best handled in a way that gets him over his reluctance to be caught. The hard-to-catch horse may succumb to treats and grain taken to the field, but then he will only come if there are treats. A better method is to catch him by waiting for him to come to you out of curiosity, no matter how long it takes, and then rewarding him with a treat when he is where you want him to be. This approach is tedious, but it's the only way to get over the problem for good.

A timid, young horse may also be hard to catch. Gain his trust by catching him every day and by making the result pleasant for him. The spoiled old horse can also be hard to catch. You may have to turn him out in a very small paddock or pen for awhile. Then catch

him for everything - feed, water, grooming - until he understands that he is dependent on you for those good things and is eager to come to you to get them.

Holding a Horse
Begin with a properly fitted halter, or add a chain over the nose or a lip chain for more control; a few horses may require a bridle with a bit if they are particularly difficult. Choose the location to hold the horse according to what's needed. If you need room to work around the horse, an open location with nothing nearby for him to bump into is best.

If he must be perfectly still, holding him next to a wall or fence is preferable. If he is prone to moving backwards to get away from things he doesn't like, back him up against a fence or wall so he can't rush backward when the object of his scorn - the veterinarian, the saddle-fitter, or anything and anyone else - arrives.

Be aware that a confined horse may become aggressive due to his defensive instincts.

Horse Sense
Once you're "in tune" with a horse's nature and no longer have to think in order to handle your horse appropriately in various situations, you will have horse sense. Horse sense consists of two basic pieces of knowledge about equines: they have better memories than we do, and they are prey animals (that is, he will flee from anything he perceives as an attacker). These facts can help you decide when, where, and how to handle a horse.

Leading Horses
Walk beside the horse's left shoulder, whether you are leading him on a halter and lead rope or with a bridle and reins. Grasp the lead rope or reins a few inches below the chin with your right hand. Pass the lead or reins across your body loosely, and grasp the end, or a coil of the remaining rope or reins, in your left fist. Some horsemen will grab the halter/bridle itself for better control, but this method is dangerous to human hands and fingers. A better way to achieve more control is to use a nose or lip chain. Never walk in front of a horse you are leading. At best he may bump into you or clip your heels; at worst, he will disrespect your space - or simply panic at something - and knock you down if something incites his urge to flee.

Punishment
Beware that punishment applied inconsistently or aggressively can trigger a dangerous, defensive response from the horse. Punishment should be viewed more as assertive discipline. It needs to be consistent and applied immediately following the act it's used to correct.

Relaxation
A handler who is tense will transmit that tension to the horse and make him generally harder to handle. It is essential, when handling horses, to be both firm in decision and intent and relaxed about carrying out whatever needs to be done.

Rubbing, Discouraging
The easiest way to discourage a horse from rubbing on you is not to rub on him. If you do, he will think rubbing is all right; further, he will use rubbing to challenge you for dominance in the relationship. If you simply must rub, then insist your horse stay in his space and not rub against you.

Safety Tips
Be alert when handling horses, no matter how well you think you know them. Pay attention to their body language and to what's going on around them. Then, if they spook, you will have a better idea of what might frighten them, which way they might move, and when - and you can arrange to either move with them or move out of their way.

See Safety

Stallions Stallions must be handled with firmness and respect. Because they are prouder, stronger, and bolder than geldings and mares, and also highly exuberant and sensitive, you invite serious trouble if you abuse a stallion. Handling him with respect and firmness, especially if he has a good temperament to begin with, will result in a tractable horse - as long as he gets sufficient exercise as an outlet for his abundant energy.

Here is a list of stallion-handling dos and don'ts

Harness

The equipment of a horse that is driven, as opposed to one that is ridden. Harnesses are made in a wide variety of styles and sizes, suited for the many styles of driving and the various breeds of horses used.

The most common harness types are the single-hitch draft or carriage harness, the fine harness, and the team/draft harness.

Although each style differs, most harnesses include: a headstall that holds one or two bits; a breast collar or neck collar, some type of surcingle or bellyband, and traces to aid in securing the shafts of the vehicle to the horse; breeching or tugs to aid in stopping the vehicle; and a crupper to help prevent the harness from being pulled too far forward on the horse's body.

Hat

Vital to every horseman's safety, regardless of the level of skill or style of riding, is the protective hat known as a helmet.

Almost every horse show association now endorses rules that make protective headgear acceptable in every class of competition.

It is best to learn the rules for apparel in the competitions you plan to attend, so you become familiar with acceptable styles of hats for your class.

Hay Nets and Hay Bags

Hay nets or bags provide a method of feeding hay in a variety of situations. The primary use is at times when the horse needs to be tied for extended periods.

The hay net can be tied in a place close to where the horse is tied so he can eat. Just be sure to tie the net or bag high enough that the horse can't get a foot caught if he paws. Tie with a quick-release knot in case the horse gets hung up in the net or bag.

Hay Storage

Hay must be kept dry in a well-ventilated area.

It can be a serious fire hazard: Newly baled hay can combust if put up at a high moisture content level. It also can provide fuel for fires that start elsewhere, making it nearly impossible to control the blaze. So it is best to store hay in a place away from your stalls and arena.

Hay

Horses by nature are grazing animals. This means that they naturally need forages as the mainstay of a healthy diet. Hay provides a perfect replacement for the grasses they may not have access to as stabled animals turned out in dirt paddocks or pastures that lack sufficient forage to maintain health.

The average mature horse generally consumes 2 to 2.5 percent of its body weight in feed each day. Ideally, at least half of that should come from hay or pasture for optimum growth and development.

Mature horses that are not working or being used as breeding animals can actually thrive on high-quality forages alone. However, those horses that are still growing, that are being used as breeding animals, or that are in athletic training programs usually require supplementation with grains and other concentrates to maintain optimum health.

Nutritional Value
Hay provides many nutrients. The exact nutrient value of any given sample of hay can only be determined through forage testing, which is available through your local extension office. Generally, hay is high in calcium and low in phosphorus. It often contains high levels of potassium and vitamins A, E, and K. If it is dried in the sun rather than via chemicals, it likely will have high levels of vitamin D. The protein content of hay varies almost too much to generalize. But some guidelines include the following: legume hays (such as alfalfa or clover) can provide as much as 20 percent crude protein; grass hays (such as timothy or bromegrass) average about 10 to 15 percent protein and can dip as low as 3 percent.

Production Methods and Protein Content
Hay production techniques largely determine protein content. Hay cut early has a higher protein content. Hay cut much past midbloom stage may offer inadequate levels of protein, so the horse must be fed protein supplements to maintain optimum health.

High-quality hay is the result of careful hay production methods. It is cut early and should appear leafy (if legume) or feel soft in texture (if grassy hay), and be free of mold, dust, weeds, and other undesirable matter. Its smell should be appealing, not musty. If you are unfamiliar with hay selection, it would be worth your time to visit with your local extension agent or agricultural education instructor to learn more.

Types of Hay
There are two main types of hay with which most horsemen are familiar. These can be fed singularly or in a mix known simply as "mixed hay."

Legumes
A family of plants having root nodules that produce nitrogen; they also have stems that leaf out into leaflets as is typical of the clover plant. Legumes are the highest in protein of all hays; averages show they can contain two to three times the amount found in grass hays. They also are higher in calcium, beta-carotene, and vitamin E.

Some believe legumes are also the most palatable of grass hays. This is why many horsemen prefer alfalfa or alfalfa mix hays over grass hay for growing, breeding, or highly athletic horses. Still, their high protein content makes legumes potentially dangerous to feed to mature, idle horses. Be careful, and become knowledgeable about horse nutrition.

Alfalfa is the most commonly known and grown legume. Some estimates list alfalfa or alfalfa-mix as constituting more than half of all hay grown in the United States. Other legumes include clovers, bird's-foot trefoil, and lespedeza.

Grass Hay
Grass hays come in a much wider variety than legumes, since numerous types of grass are native to each region of the United States. Grass plants grow with tall stalks and long, slender leaves that often wrap around the stalk, rather than branching out the way legumes do. This makes grass hay dry faster; as a result, mold is less of a problem. Grasses also don't have problems with blister beetles like alfalfa can. This means grass hay is often a better choice for horses with compromised breathing. Their lower protein and nutrient density actually makes grass hay more desirable as a feed for mature and idle horses that aren't used for breeding.

There are far too many varieties of grass hay to include here. But a few of the most common ones fed to horses are timothy, Bermuda grass, bromegrass, bluegrass, fescue, ryegrass, and orchard grass. Timothy is perhaps the most common and widely grown since it is easy to grow in a variety of soils and cold climates.

Mixed Hay
A combination of legume and grass varieties into one crop. Mixed hay provides the best of both types of hay. It is more appealing to horses because they often prefer the smaller leaves of legumes. The mix of nutrient values (high-protein legume and lower protein grass hay) makes this hay the choice of many professional stable managers because one type of hay can be fed to all types of horses.

Hazards

There is no end to the potential hazards around a barn, including anything that could catch a hoof and hold it; cause a horse to slip and fall; cause a horse to rear and bang its poll; and anything flammable, poisonous, sharp, or uneven (such as a hole).

Train yourself always to be on the lookout for things that could harm your horse or a rider. Following are some of the main hazards and the simple cures.

Baling Wire
A horse may eat small pieces of wire with his hay, so be careful how you cut bales open. Long pieces lying in the barn may trip a horse or poke him in the eye. Discard all baling wire, and twine, too, which could be picked up and eaten if left in the hay.

Broken Posts or Fence Uprights
A horse can step on or trip over these objects and damage a hoof or leg. Be sure any old structures are completely removed from horse lands.

Dangerous Fences
This category includes fences constructed of materials hazardous to horses and otherwise safe fences that are in a state of disrepair.

Horse fencing made of large-mesh wire can snag a hoof and cause immense damage if the horse is frightened and tries to pull free. Safe fencing with flapping boards and exposed nails is also dangerous.

Remove all dangerous fencing from your property and keep other fencing in good repair. Good maintenance requires daily observation of every fence in every field to ascertain what damage the horses might have done during their turnout, or what natural forces (weather as well as humans, beavers, birds, and dogs) might have done.

Hazardous Materials
Never for an instant leave any flammable liquid in the barn where a person or a horse (or a cat or mouse) could knock it over. Never leave a poisonous substance where drops or pieces of it could get into a horse's feed, hay, or water.

Low Overhangs
Your run-in shed should be a minimum of 7 feet high at the open side; higher is even better. A playing or fighting horse could rear and run into a comer, doing considerable damage to his head, neck, or eyes.

Public Rights of Way
If your pastures or paddocks abut a road or other human thoroughfare, stay alert always for things thrown onto your equine land, including broken bottles, plastic bags (which, if they contain food, might be swallowed by a horse) food wrappers, household junk, and discarded small machinery.

Survey frequently; if possible, install double fencing at road borders, with one horse-safe fence at the property's edge, and another run of fence several feet inside the first. This will leave you a "no man's land" you can easily survey and clean up when needed, and it will make it that much harder for passersby to discard trash on your land.

It will also protect your horses from breaking a fence board, jumping or stepping out, and getting into traffic.

Rodent Holes
These will be made by different "varmints," depending on where you live. In the East, they are often called chuck holes, because woodchucks make them. Whatever makes holes in your area - woodchucks, moles, prairie dogs, snakes - be alert for them and fill them in. When riding in fields, survey well ahead before you take up a gallop; a horse that steps suddenly into these holes can pull a tendon or break a leg.

Sharp Projections
These include old nails from which something has fallen, broken hooks, separating sections of wood, and more. A horse could catch his skin, which would result in a painful and possibly laming tear. He could also catch an eye or eyelid with even worse consequences. Completely remove broken gate latches or any other fastener or holder; check frequently for nails coming out of boards, for nails left behind by workers, and for dangerous wooden structures.

Head Bumper

A flat, padded, leather or neoprene cap that attaches to a halter and protects the horse's head while he is being trailered.

If the horse rears or is bounced up to the top of the trailer, the bumper will protect his poll.

Headstall

Another term for bridle.

Heated Barns

While they may be more pleasant for humans, heated barns are a very unnatural environment for horses and can cause them to become prone to respiratory problems and viruses.

Plus, heating a barn is expensive and difficult. It is better to heat only those areas you need warmed when the situation demands it, such as when nursing an aged, sick, or injured horse, or for foaling in very cold weather.

Helmet, Safety

A protective riding helmet is the first item of equipment a rider should buy. Be sure the helmet is designed specifically for horseback riding and meet the standards established by the American Standard for Testing Materials (ASTM) and the Safety Equipment Institute (SEI). These standards do not guarantee that a helmet will protect a rider from head injury; however, if properly fitted and secured, a helmet should reduce the risk of injury.

Approved helmets are constructed of expanded polystyrene, which crushes on impact and absorbs the energy of the fall, cushioning the head. Bicycle helmets are not recommended for horseback riding, because they are too shallow and do not cover the head adequately.

Almost every horse show association now endorses rules that make protective headgear acceptable in every class of competition, so riders no longer have to risk their safety for the sake of fashion.

Hitches

There are three types of trailer hitches: fifth-wheel, gooseneck, and straight-pull. Each has advantages and disadvantages.

Fifth-wheel
This is the same type of hitch used to hood semitrailers to the big rigs used to pull them. It is the safest hitch available for hauling heavy trailers. Some education and considerable experience are required before an amateur driver is safe on the road.

Gooseneck
These hitches are welded to the bed of the tow vehicle. They are more maneuverable but are minimally acceptable for hauling larger trailers.

Straight-Pull or Tagalong
This is the common "ball" hitch. Less expensive than gooseneck hitches and a good choice for two-horse trailers, straight-pull hitches can be hard to maneuver and hood up. They also may put more stress on rear end of the tow vehicle. This is the only hitch available for cars and vans.

Hitching Posts

A sturdy vertical beam or round post of good diameter that is held up by substantial posts anchored in the ground.

The hitching post is useful for tying horses while they are waiting to work.

Hobbles

A form of restraint.

Hondo

In Western riding, a catch rope - one with which cattle are roped - is a length of twisted fiber strands that ends in a loop.

The hondo is the small, tied end of the rope through which the rest of it slides when the rope is thrown. Attached to the hondo is a burner, a strip of leather that helps prevent wear as the rope slides through the hondo while tightening.

Hooey

A half-hitch that is tied around the hind legs of a calf that has been roped and is being hog-tied.

Hoof Pick

An instrument for removing dirt, stones, and debris from a horse's hooves.

Picks come in several varieties, but all have either a sharp wedge or screwdriver point for digging out the material.

Some have an attached brush for removing the remaining sand or grains, and some even include a small comb for pulling manes.

Hoof

The hard structure at the bottom of a horse's leg. The hoof is the remnant, after eons of evolution, of the original toes of Eohippus, the primeval horse. The ergot and chestnut are also such remnants and may likely disappear with further evolution. However, the original toes still exist as bony elements within the horse's hoof.

Although a horse's feet look solid and tough, they are actually full of delicate structures and are protected only partially by the hard outer wall. The sole of the foot is softer than the wall; the frog, a wedge-shaped area of soft tissue beginning at the heel and reaching two-thirds of the way toward the toe, is quite soft.

The shapes of front and hind feet are slightly different, but both grow outer hoof wall that extends beyond the softer portions, keeping them out of contact with most small pebbles on the ground; a large stone, however, may bruise even the artificially raised sole of a shod foot. Keeping a horse's feet in good condition is essential for soundness.

Abscess
An area of collected pus within a horse's hoof. Abscesses will make the horse lame. They may be caused by a puncture of the sole of the hoof, an infected stone bruise to the sole, or a horseshoe nail that entered (or "quicked") the sensitive tissues within the hoof.

Treatment by the veterinarian involves piercing the sole of the hoof to reach the abscess and allow for drainage. Follow-up nursing care involves soaking the foot in Epsom salts. Often, the veterinarian will also prescribe topical and sometimes even injectable antibiotics.

Bruised Sole or Corn
Because the sole of the foot is not as hard as the load-bearing outer hoof wall, bruises can occur on hard or rocky ground. Letting shoes stay on too long can also cause bruising; the bulb of the heel may press on the metal, causing bruising beneath the sole, as a sharp rock might. A bruise or com on the sole of the feet appears as a reddish discoloration on the sole; lameness might be the first clue, however.

Conformation
Feet should be large but in proportion to the horse's body. Small feet will suffer extra concussion and increased wear and tear; few horses have feet that are too big, but some horses (and some breeds, such as the Quarter Horse) may have feet that are too small, and can develop unsoundness later in life.

Cracks
Unshod horses often experience cracks and chips of the lower part of the hoof, but these are rarely serious. A shod horse may also develop cracks, usually starting in the hoof wall at ground level, traveling upward.

A crack may also start in the heel or quarter area and travel horizontally around the food because of weakness of the wall in that area, perhaps as the result of a blow or injury. Minor cracks are generally dealt with as routine matter by the farrier each time he visits. Some cracks, however, call for veterinary care or corrective shoeing by the farrier. Deep cracks may make the horse lame, as may those caused by injury to the coronary band.

Founder
Also called laminitis, founder is inflammation of the sensitive laminae of the foot. It can be caused by the following

Horse Boots

Horse boots can be useful protection for a horse's knees, fetlocks, lower legs, coronary band, and other body parts that may be vulnerable to wounds or sores. The boots come in many types, and each type is generally available in at least two sizes, ensuring an adequate fit for most horses.

Fetlock boots and hock boots are named after the part of the horse's body they protect.

Splint boots utilize a reinforced plate to protect the splint bones on the inside of the legs.

Rundown boots, also called skid boots, protect the rear fetlock area of a working horse from injury due to sudden stops.

Bell boots cover the upper portion of the hoof, encircling and guarding the coronary band.

Sport boots provide additional support to the tendons and protect the inside portions of the legs.

Rubber hoof boots are sometimes used to protect bar hooves.

For horses traveling in a trailer, traveling boots and shipping boots protect the coronary band, the heel bulbs, the knees, and the hocks. The exteriors of these tall, durable, and thickly padded boots are often made of nylon.

Horse Shoes

Like our fingernails, horse's hooves grow continuously and need to be trimmed regularly, whether or not shoes are worn. Over the course of a year, the entire hoof is replaced from the coronary band to the toe.

Many ponies and some horses have particularly dense hooves and do not need shoes (Arabians and Appaloosas are known for having strong feet), and horses that are not being ridden or worked are generally not shod. However, most horses are shod with iron shoes to protect their feet from cracking and bruising.

Horses that are ridden on gravel or pavement should always have shoes, as should jumpers.

Shoes can also correct a number of problems of the feet and legs. A good farrier can help an unbalanced horse move more evenly, can reduce "forging" (when a horse kicks his own ankles with his rear feet), and can keep a split in a hoof from leading to more serious problems.

When putting on new shoes or resetting old ones, the farrier first pulls off the old shoes. He then trims the sole and toe, carving away the excess with a curved blade. (Dogs seem to be quite fond of these trimmings.) Before being nailed on, new shoes are precisely fitted or old ones remeasured to make sure the fit is the same.

Horses often lose a shoe when turned out or while working. Sometimes the hind foot catches against the front shoe, loosening the nails, which is why you see many horses wearing bell boots. Frequent stamping of the feet against flies is another way nails come loose. Whatever the cause, once a shoe is loose, it needs to come off immediately and be reset by your farrier. Loose shoes can come part of the way off and cause quite a lot of damage to either the hoof itself or to the leg.

Horseshoe Nails (device)

Nails are used to secure horse shoes onto hooves.

It doesn't hurt the horse to have his shoes nailed on, because the nails go into the tough outer wall, not into the sensitive sole or frog.

Insurance

There are numerous types of insurance for horses and horsemen; several are described below. Speak with your insurance agent about your specific needs.

Liability insurance
Similar to other forms of liability insurance, this protects you from lawsuits resulting from injury to other persons caused by you or your horse. A wide range of coverage is available; the most vital differentiation is between the personal and professional limits of such policies. If you receive any remuneration for your horse-related activities, you likely need professional liability. Personal liability can often be added to your renter's or homeowner's policy if you are not a professional.

Life insurance (for horse)
Known as mortality insurance, this comes in a variety of types ranging from specific perils coverage (covers death caused by limited number of causes) to full mortality coverage (covers death by most natural causes). Most policies require that surgery be performed if it's a lifesaving option, regardless of the cost of surgery. So many horsemen now purchase surgical coverage.

Surgical or major medical
Covers the cost of most medically necessary surgeries and medical treatments.

Care, custody, and control
Insurance for people who care for, or have temporary custody or control of, horses owned by others. Examples of those who benefit from this type of insurance include, but are not limited to, boarding stable operators, trainers, coaches, and people who receive money for hauling horses, whether professionally or as amateurs.

Professional errors and omissions
Protects professionals from malpractice types of lawsuits.

Iodine-Antiseptic

A useful antiseptic to have in the barn, for use on both human and equine cuts and abrasions. It is also used, in mild solution, as a navel dip for foals.

Iodine can be applied to the bottom of the hooves of flat-footed horses so they don't bruise as easily; iodine toughens the tissue somewhat. Apply it only to the sole of the foot; avoiding spilling it down the hoof wall (it will dry out the hoof wall) or onto tender tissues above the hoof, where it may burn skin.

Iodine-Supplement

Iodine is necessary in the diet for growth and to regulate metabolism. Only a small amount (as little as 1 mg daily) is needed.

Sufficient iodine is included in most commercial feeds.

If you still think your horse lacks iodine, a little iodized salt or mineral salt (such as is afforded by an equine salt or mineral block) can supply it. Kelp products also contain iodine. But the danger is usually of supplying too much iodine rather than too little. It's best to check with your veterinarian before adding iodine to a horse's ration.

Iron

A trace mineral necessary to a horse's health. It is usually supplied sufficiently in the diet, although some horses seem to need more than the established requirement.

Consult your veterinarian for more information

Jodhpurs

Pants used in English riding. Jodhpurs come in two styles: hunt seat and saddle seat. Traditionally, those used in hunt seat were cut full above the knee and tight below, a pattern that originated in Jodhpur, a state in northwest India where polo and other equine sports held sway.

These days, jodhpurs are usually not much fuller above the knee, if at all, because they are made of stretch fabric. This allows for the movement of the rider, which the extra fabric once accommodated. While these breeches were originally uncuffed for tucking into short or even tall boots, today they are usually finished in a cuff and are worn outside short boots (over which they fit tightly).

Adults may wear jodhpurs for hacking and lessons; young children (usually under twelve) may wear them in shows. The breeches are held poles and riding horses that also wear head, neck, and chest armor. Each combatant gallops toward the opposing rider and attempts to strike him on the chest and knock him off the horse to the ground. These days, jousting is performed in festivals with historic themes, in theme arenas, and at theme parks. It is the state sport of Maryland.

Jumps - Types of Jumps

Similar jumps are used for hunter-jumper and jumper contests, although there are some that may be used only for jumpers.

Hog's Back
This consists of three elements; front, middle, and back. The center part is higher than the two on the outside, which are of equal height.

Jumps for Jumpers
Only jumpers include diagonal jumps (verticals with one side higher than the other), uneven oxers (one end of the front element is high; the opposite end of the back element is high), fan jumps (obstacles with a spread between oxer poles that is wide at one end and very narrow with all poles gathered together at the others), water jumps (verticals with real or simulated pool of water up to 12 feet across on the far side), and narrows (jumps with as little as 5 feet between the uprights).

Oxer
This is usually two verticals set close together, one behind the other, with the height closely matching the depth. Horses seem to like oxers, causing them to give a good, smooth arc over the top.

Roll Top
This solid, curved jump, a few feet in width, is often topped with a pole to raise the height. Sometimes, the jump is bare wood, painted wood, or wooden slats; more often, it is covered with "grass" carpeting and looks like a little hillock. It is usually intimidating to horses, if not to riders.

Spreads
These have greater width than verticals - perhaps as much as two elements the width of their standards apart. Sometimes, spreads are even made of three elements, like a hog's back, but the height ascends from front to back. A spread may also be created by putting two elements that have a predetermined width between two uprights. Often, 55-gallon drums are used, or the jump is made to look like a flat-topped stone or brick wall that is 2 or 3 feet across.

Verticals
A single set of poles or panels of the height being jumped. Verticals are usually the least intimidating for new riders, but they are more difficult for the horse to judge because of their lack of depth.

Variations include: panels that look like gates, usually straight across the top (although the riviera may have a downward curve in the middle); brush boxes (narrow containers, not much wider than a jump pole, into which greenery can be stuffed to look like a fence with a hedge); and flower boxes (boxes not much wider than a pole with flowers sticking out; they're usually very low, to look like a garden border).

Kentucky Wire

Another name for diamond wire mesh fencing material. Horses can't chew it, it's relatively maintenance free, and best of all it's nearly impossible for a horse to get a leg caught in it.

Common in Kentucky on big Thoroughbred breeding farms, hence the name.

Knots

Use only a quick-release knot when tying a horse. If the horse cannot break free from an object when panicked, he might take it with him, doing irreparable damage to himself in the process.

Caution: Never tie a horse to anything by the reins attached to a bridle and bit; if he panicked it is likely the damage to his mouth would be severe or irreparable.

Most people already know a slipknot, which is used by many horsemen.

Lead Rope

A length of cotton or nylon rope with a snap at one end that fastens to the halter.

Lead Shank

A length of nylon or leather with a chain at one end that can be adjusted over, under, or around the nose for greater control.

The chain is commonly used when handling stallions or other fractious horses.

Leading Rein

A rein that tells the horse which way to go by gently moving his head in the correct direction.

The rider applies a leading rein by moving her hand laterally away from the horse's neck in the direction she wants him to turn; the rein should not be pulled upward or downward. The opposite hand continues to follow the horse's mouth without adding more tension.

Leasing versus Buying

When riders decide they need a horse of their own, they often think immediately of buying a horse. There is also the possibility of leasing, however; for beginning buyers, leasing can be a good idea.

The pros of buying are as follows:

The cons of buying are as follows:

Legal Aspects of Horse Ownership

Horse owners have legal obligations to their horses, neighbors, and other horse owners, visitors to their property, and others within sight or sound of their property.

Owners also have legal obligations concerning confining their livestock to their land. Personal liability is a factor that applies to horse owners, whether they house their animals on their own farm or ranch or board them at a commercial stable or friend's farm or ranch.

Liability for injuries a horse might cause to riders and nonriders is often available as part of a homeowner's policy that covers accidents caused by pets.

It may also be available as a separate policy from the same agencies that issue mortality insurance for the horse.

Legume Hay

Hay made entirely from alfalfa, clover, or other legumes; it should be fed sparingly because horses like it and tend to overeat it.

Fine-stemmed alfalfa, useful for cattle, is too rich for horses and does not offer enough roughage to assist their digestion.

Lesson Barn

A barn that keeps school horses, which are used to teach riders of all levels. These barns may also have boarders at various levels, and both lesson students and horse owners may show their horses. Some lesson barns host shows; others do not. Finding the proper lesson barn for your riding goals will help you meet them safely and pleasurably.

Discuss Your Goals

If your goal is to become an Olympic competitor, be sure the school is prepared to teach you all they can and prepare you for a national-caliber coach at the appropriate time. If you want to ride well and compete in shows, either rated or local, be sure the barn will offer that opportunity when you are ready.

If you want only to learn to ride and enjoy classes and trail rides, be sure the barn is willing to provide that level of teaching; some barns are "show barns" and are not interested in students who don't care to compete.

Some barns, on the other hand, are purely riding schools and have, at most, a few in-house shows each year with only barn students competing against each other.

Facilities
Don't judge a lesson barn by how fancy the establishment is; some of the best teaching is done with no more than a basic outdoor arena. If you live in a severe climate or you can only get to lessons after nightfall, however, you may want to find the best barn that offers an indoor, lighted arena.

Also look for a barn that houses its school horses well and offers them adequate turnout; at many barns, the hard-working lesson horses take a back seat to the more lightly worked - but more expensive privately owned horses or boarders. A good lesson barn will take good care of its school horses. These establishments will usually take good care of their students, as well.

Observe Lessons
If you are new to riding, you may not know whether a teacher is well educated in the skills he or she is teaching. But you can tell by watching whether the students are enjoying themselves, whether they seem to understand the instructions, whether they seem to enjoy a good deal of success at the activities presented, and whether the instructor verbally abuses them.

Teachers should have an encouraging attitude, and they should treat the horses and students respectfully; good teachers will not tolerate students who abuse horses by yanking on the bit, punching or kicking the horse, or bouncing carelessly up and down in the saddle while waiting to perform an activity.

Style of Riding
If you know you want to learn English riding, or hunt seat, look for a hunter, hunt seat, or English barn. If you want to learn Western, look for a Western barn.

Dressage is an English discipline offered at dedicated dressage barns, and at some hunter barns. A few Western barns also offer dressage. Other types of riding that have dedicated lesson barns are saddle seat and Paso Fino.

Light Seat

A seat that is halfway between a full balanced seat (in which most of the rider's weight is on the seat bones), and a two-point seat (in which the rider's entire seat is off the saddle, with only two points - the inner thighs - in contact with the saddle).

A light seat allows the inner thighs to support more of the rider's weight than they would in a full seat; in fact, the rider's seat appears to be just touching the saddle. A light seat allows the rider to change from a driving seat in full contact to a two-point seat easily while jumping a course of fences, and it allows the horse to move forward naturally, as well.

Lighting Barns

Barns should include unfiltered natural light to encourage vitamin D production in the horse. Sunlight is also a good sanitizing agent, and it helps keep barns from developing rank odors.

Large sliding doors can admit this light and windows that open can be installed so that some light enters without being filtered through panes of glass. Of course, windows need to be closed for winter months in cold climates.

For stalls, work areas, and tack rooms incandescent bulbs are best; be sure they are caged anyplace a horse might come into contact with them, such as in his stall (where he might toss his head and hit anything installed in a low ceiling) and around the wash stall. Fluorescent lights diffuse easily and, thus, are only appropriate where you can install a large enough fixture to provide the concentration of light you need. Mercury vapor lights, which are several times brighter than fluorescent, are best for indoor riding arenas. They must be installed on high ceilings as they require 16 feet of space to diffuse.

Lime or Lelleted Limestone

Granulated or pelleted limestone, also called lime, is available at feed stores and farm supply stores in 50-pound bags. This product is used to deodorize and help dry stalls. It is sprinkled on the floor before the stall is completely rebedded, especially before receiving a new horse.

Lime can be sprinkled on wet spots during daily cleaning as long as the horse will then be turned out and the stall windows and doors can be left open. New bedding must be installed over the lime before the horse is readmitted to the stall. Avoid powdered lime as it may cause respiratory problems in horses.

Litigation

Litigation has been the prime motivator for increased safety in riding schools. Many schools are certified by the American Association for Horsemanship Safety, Inc., which may, in addition to lowering a barn's insurance rates, also promote stringent safety measures in order to avoid litigation for negligence.

The philosophy behind safety measures is succinctly put by internationally known trainer John Lyons: "Human safety is first. Horse safety is second. Everything else is third."

Loading Horses into Trailers

Horses should be introduced to all sorts of trailers as part of their early training; nothing is more frustrating than missing a trail ride, show, or lesson because your horse won't load.

When arranging horses on the trailer there are several considerations. One of these concerns is balancing the load by estimating the weight of the horses, and putting them on in the correct order for the type of trailer you are using.

Another concern is the personalities of the horses; some don't mind being leaned against, for example, when in a stock trailer with others. Some horses have trouble stepping down backwards when unloading from a step-up trailer. Putting these horses on first will allow you to later unload the rest so that there is room to turn the last horses around so that they can come out facing forward.

Locks

In some states it is illegal to apply a lock to a horse's stall because, in the event of fire, a person needs to be able to open the stall door and let or lead the horses out.

Latches, however, are fine, and some are more horseproof than others. They are easily removed in a hurry by a human yet relatively impossible for a horse to open.

Longe Line

A long rope that is attached to the horse's halter or bridle while the horse works in a circle at a set distance from the handler.

Longeing

Working a horse on a long rope in a circle about 60 feet in diameter. A long rope is attached to the halter or bridle or to a special noseband called a cavesson.

The handler holds the line in one hand and a long whip in the other.

Many young horses are trained on the longe line before learning to accept a bit and saddle. Working on the longe teaches them to balance themselves as they move around a circle and to respond primarily to vocal commands. The whip is never used to strike the horse, just to keep him from moving in toward the handler and to encourage him to move forward.

Longeing is a good way to work off excess energy if a horse has not been ridden for a while or is known to act up under saddle. Lots of instructors use longeing lessons for their students, who can then concentrate on their seat and leg positions without having to worry about the reins.